The Iberian Peninsula, today known as Spain and Portugal, has been a significant crossroads for human civilization since prehistoric times. The history of the early Iberian people is deeply entwined with the broader narratives of European prehistory, marked by waves of migration, cultural exchanges and the emergence of complex societies long before the Roman conquest. This article delves into the lives, cultures and influences of the early inhabitants of prehistoric Spain, tracing their development from the Palaeolithic era through to the rise of the first Iberian civilizations.
The First Iberian People of Prehistoric Spain
The Lower Palaeolithic: Early Human Presence
The history of human habitation on the Iberian Peninsula dates back to the Lower Palaeolithic period, approximately 1.2 million years ago. The earliest evidence of human activity in this region is associated with ‘Homo antecessor’, one of the earliest known hominins in Europe. Fossil remains found at the Atapuerca site in northern Spain have provided crucial insights into the lives of these early humans.
At the Gran Dolina site in Atapuerca, researchers unearthed what has been called “the first European” – a jawbone and teeth of a skeleton estimated to be between 1.1 and 1.2 million years old. These findings highlight Atapuerca’s importance as one of the world’s key palaeontological sites.
These early inhabitants were hunter-gatherers, relying on rudimentary stone tools, known as Oldowan tools, to hunt animals and process plant materials. The harsh and fluctuating climate of the Pleistocene epoch required adaptability, which these early humans displayed in their subsistence strategies.
The Middle Palaeolithic: The Neanderthals
The Middle Palaeolithic period saw the arrival of the Neanderthals (‘Homo neanderthalensis’), who inhabited the Iberian Peninsula around 400,000 to 40,000 years ago. The Neanderthals were adept hunters, with a diet primarily composed of large game, supplemented by foraged plants. The archaeological record indicates that Neanderthals in the Iberian Peninsula developed a sophisticated toolkit known as the Mousterian culture, characterized by flint tools that were more refined and varied than those of their predecessors.
The Neanderthals in Spain demonstrated remarkable symbolic and artistic capabilities. This is evidenced at the Cueva de los Aviones site in Murcia, where perforated marine shells and pigments, possibly used for body adornment, were discovered. Even more significantly, three cave sites reveal their artistic sophistication: Ardales Cave contains mineral formations decorated with red pigments, La Pasiega Cave features abstract red line designs and Maltravieso Cave preserves ancient hand outlines.
Scientific dating of these artworks to at least 64,000 years ago – predating Homo sapiens’ arrival in Europe by approximately 20,000 years – definitively attributes this earliest known European cave art to Neanderthals. These findings, combined with evidence of personal ornamentation, demonstrate a degree of cognitive complexity and social structure within Neanderthal groups that rivals that of early modern humans.
The Upper Palaeolithic: Arrival of Anatomically Modern Humans
Around 40,000 years ago, the Iberian Peninsula witnessed the arrival of anatomically modern humans (‘Homo sapiens’), who coexisted with the dwindling Neanderthal populations for several millennia. This period, known as the Upper Palaeolithic, is marked by significant advancements in technology, art and culture. The Aurignacian culture, associated with the first modern humans in Europe, introduced more sophisticated stone tools, bone tools and the use of ornaments.
One of the most remarkable aspects of Upper Palaeolithic Spain is its rich cave art, exemplified by the famous paintings at Altamira and El Castillo near Santander. These artworks, depicting animals such as bison, deer and horses, offer a glimpse into the symbolic and spiritual world of early modern humans. Another important Cro-Magnon site still open for people to visit is the Nerja Caves in Andalucía.
The use of ochre and other pigments to create these images demonstrates the cognitive leap that had taken place, reflecting the ability of these early inhabitants to represent their environment and possibly their belief systems through art.
Neolithic Revolution: The Transition to Agriculture
Introduction of Farming and Domestication
The Neolithic period, beginning around 6000 BCE, marked a profound transformation in the Iberian Peninsula as communities transitioned from a hunter-gatherer lifestyle to one based on agriculture and animal domestication. This shift, often referred to as the Neolithic Revolution, fundamentally altered the social and economic structures of prehistoric Iberian societies.
The spread of farming to the Iberian Peninsula is believed to have occurred through two primary routes: a coastal Mediterranean route from the eastern Mediterranean and a land-based route through the Pyrenees. The earliest evidence of agriculture in Spain is found in the archaeological sites of Catalonia and Valencia, where wheat, barley and legumes were cultivated and domesticated animals such as sheep, goats and pigs were raised. This transition enabled more stable and permanent settlements, leading to the development of complex societies.
Cultural and Technological Innovations
With the advent of agriculture, Neolithic communities in Spain began to develop new technologies and cultural practices. The production of pottery became widespread, with distinct styles emerging in different regions. The Cardial Ware culture, named after the distinctive impressed decoration made with a cardium shell, is particularly notable in the Mediterranean coastal regions.
The construction of megalithic structures, such as dolmens and menhirs, also began during this period, reflecting the development of communal and possibly religious practices. These megaliths, found throughout the Iberian Peninsula, served as burial sites or ceremonial spaces, indicating a growing complexity in social and spiritual life. The construction of these large stone structures required a significant degree of social organisation, suggesting that Neolithic societies in Spain had developed hierarchical structures and specialised labour.
The Rise of Early Iberian Civilisations
The Chalcolithic Period: The Dawn of Metallurgy
The Chalcolithic period, also known as the Copper Age, began around 3000 BCE and marks the introduction of metalworking in the Iberian Peninsula. Copper, the first metal to be widely used, revolutionised tools and weapons, leading to significant changes in economic and social structures. The Los Millares culture in south-eastern Spain is one of the most prominent Chalcolithic cultures, known for its fortified settlements, complex burial practices and extensive use of copper tools and ornaments.
Los Millares was characterised by its large, stone-walled settlements, indicating the presence of a society capable of large-scale construction and defence. The culture’s extensive cemeteries, featuring collective tombs known as tholoi, reflect a society with well-defined social hierarchies and elaborate funerary practices. The development of metallurgy also led to increased trade with other regions, as copper and other materials were exchanged across the Mediterranean.
The Bronze Age: The Emergence of Proto-Iberian Cultures
The Bronze Age, beginning around 1800 BCE, saw the further development of metalworking and the emergence of more complex societies in the Iberian Peninsula. This period is marked by the rise of regional cultures that would lay the groundwork for the later historical Iberians. The El Argar culture in south-eastern Spain is one of the most significant Bronze Age cultures, known for its advanced metallurgy, urbanisation and social stratification.
El Argar society was highly hierarchical, with a ruling elite that controlled the production and distribution of bronze weapons and tools. The culture’s settlements, often located on defensible hilltops, featured sophisticated urban planning, with distinct residential, industrial and funerary areas. The elite were buried in richly furnished tombs, often within the confines of the settlements, highlighting the close connection between political power and control over resources.
The Bronze Age also saw the beginning of long-distance trade networks that connected the Iberian Peninsula with other parts of Europe and the Mediterranean. Goods such as amber, gold and exotic ceramics were exchanged, facilitating cultural exchanges and the spread of technological innovations. The interaction with eastern Mediterranean cultures, including the Mycenaeans and Phoenicians, would have a lasting impact on the development of Iberian societies.
Archaeological Sites in Spain
The following archaeological sites are listed chronologically, based on their earliest known dates of human activity. Please note that exact dating can sometimes be debated among archaeologists.
| Site Name | Location | Time Period | Main Feature |
|---|---|---|---|
| Atapuerca | Burgos | ~1,000,000 – 200,000 BCE | Oldest known human fossils in Europe |
| Cave of El Castillo | Cantabria | ~40,800 BCE | Europe’s oldest cave paintings |
| Altamira Cave | Santillana del Mar | ~35,600 – 13,000 BCE | Famous Paleolithic bison paintings |
| La Pileta Cave | Málaga | ~30,000 – 8,000 BCE | Diverse Paleolithic and post-Paleolithic art |
| Tito Bustillo Cave | Asturias | ~22,000 – 10,000 BCE | Complex Paleolithic art galleries |
| Nerja Caves | Málaga | ~25,000 – 3,000 BCE | Long-term human occupation evidence |
| Cueva de los Letreros | Almería | ~6,000 – 4,000 BCE | Neolithic schematic rock art |
| Dolmen of Soto | Huelva | ~3,000 – 2,500 BCE | Large megalithic burial chamber |
| Antequera Dolmens | Málaga | ~3,750 – 3,000 BCE | UNESCO World Heritage megalithic complex |
| Dolmens of Valencia de Alcántara | Extremadura | ~3,000 – 2,500 BCE | Complex of megalithic burial chambers |
| Naveta des Tudons | Menorca | ~1,200 – 750 BCE | Unique boat-shaped Bronze Age tomb |
Iron Age: The Dawn of Recorded History
The Arrival of the Phoenicians and Greeks
The Iron Age, beginning around 1000 BCE, marks the period when the Iberian Peninsula began to enter the sphere of influence of the great Mediterranean civilisations. The Phoenicians, renowned seafarers from the eastern Mediterranean, established colonies along the southern coast of Spain, most notably at Gadir (modern-day Cádiz) which is the oldest continually inhabited city in Europe. Other colonies known to have been established at this time were the modern day cities of Huelva, Málaga and Almuñécar.
These colonies became centres of trade, where the Phoenicians exchanged luxury goods such as ivory, glass and textiles for local resources like silver, copper and tin.
The arrival of the Phoenicians brought significant cultural and technological influences to the Iberian Peninsula. They introduced ironworking, which soon replaced bronze as the dominant material for tools and weapons. The Phoenicians also brought with them writing, which the Iberians adapted to create their scripts, such as the Iberian and Tartessian scripts, marking the beginning of recorded history in the region.
Greek traders and settlers also arrived on the eastern coast of Spain during the Iron Age, establishing colonies such as Emporion (modern-day Empúries). The Greeks introduced new agricultural practices, such as the cultivation of the vine and olive, which would become staples of the Iberian economy. The interaction between the indigenous Iberians and these Mediterranean colonisers led to the fusion of cultures, resulting in the emergence of a distinctive Iberian civilisation.
The Iberian Civilisation: A Distinct Culture
By the 6th century BCE, the Iberians had developed a distinct civilisation that occupied much of the eastern and southern parts of the peninsula. The Iberians were organised into tribal societies, each with its chiefdom and social hierarchy. Their economy was based on agriculture, animal husbandry and trade, both with neighbouring tribes and with the Mediterranean world.
The Iberians are particularly noted for their art and architecture, which reflect a blend of indigenous and external influences. They produced intricate bronze and iron weapons, elaborate jewellery and distinctive pottery decorated with geometric patterns. The Iberians also built fortified towns, known as oppida, which served as political, economic and military centres.
Religious practices among the Iberians were complex and varied, with evidence of ancestor worship, veneration of natural elements and the influence of Mediterranean deities introduced by the Phoenicians and Greeks. Iberian sanctuaries, such as those found in Castulo and Cerro de los Santos, have yielded numerous statues and votive offerings, indicating a highly developed religious life.
The Carthaginians and Romans
By the 6th century BCE, the balance of power in the Iberian Peninsula began to shift with the arrival of the Carthaginians. Expanding their influence from North Africa, the Carthaginians pushed out the Greeks and established Carthago Nova (modern-day Cartagena) as their primary base of operations, alongside Cádiz. These cities became key hubs for trade and military activities.
The Carthaginians struggled for control of the peninsula with Rome during the Punic Wars (circa 260–201 BCE), a conflict marked by events such as Hannibal’s famous and ultimately futile march over the Alps with his elephants to invade Italy.
Rome’s eventual victory over Carthage marked the beginning of a new era for Iberia. While the Romans quickly subdued the Carthaginians, they faced significant resistance from some native tribes. The Basques in northern Spain, for example, posed ongoing challenges and the siege of Numancia remains one of the most notable examples of Iberian resistance to Roman rule.
By around 50 BCE, the Romans had fully integrated the Iberian Peninsula into their empire, naming it Hispania. This ushered in the Pax Romana, a period of stability during which Hispania became a vital part of the Roman economy. The region supplied Rome with food, olive oil, wine, grain, garum (a spicy sauce) and metals. Hispania also produced notable figures such as the philosophers Martial and Seneca, as well as the emperor Theodosius I.
Rome left an enduring legacy in Hispania, introducing a road system, aqueducts, theatres, circuses, baths, temples, a legal framework and the Latin language, which would form the basis of modern Spanish. The peninsula was organized into distinct regions, each with principal cities such as Cartagena, Córdoba, Mérida and Tarragona.
Today, Roman ruins remain scattered throughout Spain, offering glimpses into this transformative period. Some of the most significant sites include the aqueduct of Segovia, the amphitheatre at Tarragona and the city of Mérida, often regarded as the greatest Roman city outside of Rome itself.
The Legacy of Prehistoric Spain
Prehistoric Spain, shaped by millennia of human activity, laid the foundations for the complex societies that would later emerge on the Iberian Peninsula. From the earliest hunter-gatherers of the Palaeolithic era to the sophisticated cultures of the Iron Age, the early Iberians were a diverse and dynamic people who contributed to the broader tapestry of European prehistory. The interactions between indigenous cultures and external influences, particularly from the Mediterranean, played a crucial role in shaping the development of early Iberian civilisations.
The legacy of these prehistoric societies is still evident in the archaeological sites, artefacts and cultural practices that have survived to the present day. As modern Spain continues to explore and preserve its ancient past, the story of the early Iberians remains a vital part of understanding the broader history of human civilisation.
The study of prehistoric Spain and the early Iberians offers valuable insights into the origins and development of one of Europe’s most historically rich regions. The complex interplay of migration, technological innovation and cultural exchange that characterised this period laid the groundwork for the historical narratives that would unfold in the centuries to come, making the early Iberians a key chapter in the history of Spain.
Years ago I completed years of research on my father’s Jaquez ancestry and the origin of that surname in Jaca, Aragon, Spain. I submitted a paper to Academia.edu in 2010 on a theory of the origin of the Iberians of Georgia and Ebro River area in Spain.
https://independent.academia.edu/HiramJacques
Recently, I had my DNA analysed and was shocked to discover a large percentage of Southern Europe ancestry. My family has lived for centuries in South Texas. In fact we have a ranch that was originally a land grant from the King of Spain. My mother has traced her family tree to King Ferdinand. I have significantly less DNA from the Iberian Peninsula than Southern Europe as do a number of my family members.
We think that my mother’s maiden name of Carrales could be Greek if spelled with a K.
I had never heard of a Greek community in Spain. Apparently there are a significant number of people in South Texas whose ancestors came to the New World in the 15 – 17th centuries who can claim Greek origins unbeknownst to them.